International immigration and entrepreneurship in rural areas of the Spanish Pyrenees

  • Cristóbal Mendoza Departamento de Geografia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Spain ; Departamento de Sociología, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Mexico https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8694-6830
Keywords: immigrant entrepreneurship, rural areas, Spain, lifestyle migration, Pyrenees, mountain areas, local economies

Abstract

The academic literature on international immigration into rural areas has clearly identified two main international migration flows: retirement migration and low-skilled migration in farming. Yet, the emphasis on these two types of international immigrants has overlooked other types of incomers, such as professionals, lifestyle movers, immigrant entrepreneurs and self-employed workers who may potentially have positive impacts on local rural economies and societies. Filling a gap in the literature, this paper concentrates on immigrant entrepreneurship in the Spanish Pyrenees. In doing so, it explores connections between local economies, entrepreneurship, and lifestyle immigration. It also analyses the potential of immigrant entrepreneurs to contribute to local economic growth with the different types of capital they possess (e.g. human capital, social capital). Methodology, it is based on a fieldwork carried out in the Spanish Pyrenees between February and May 2022. Specifically, it has been carried out 31 in-depth interviews with foreign-born immigrants in two areas of the Spanish Pyrenees (Girona and Huesca). The non-representative sample is equally distributed among immigrant entrepreneurs, self-employed workers, and employees, and it was also balanced by sex and covered different ages, covering, thus, a broad spectrum of immigrants’ labour incorporations. Our results add new evidence to previous discussions on immigrant entrepreneurship and lifestyle immigration, from the viewpoint of rural mountain areas. Interviewed immigrant entrepreneurs occasionally play a key role in the creation and introduction of innovative products in very specific market niches in farming and tourism in the Pyrenees. In this way, immigrants stimulate local economies, and help to strengthen values on sustainability, community and sense of place. Yet the companies they create are often limited in both size and capital, and these circumstances generally produce only a slight impact on local economic development and job creation in the Pyrenees

References

Aliaga-Isla, R. and Rialp, Á. 2013. Systematic review of immigrant entrepreneurship literature: Previous findings and ways forward. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development 25. (9-10): 819-844. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2013.845694

Ambrosini, M. 2012. Migrants' entrepreneurship in transnational social fields: Research in the Italian context. International Review of Sociology 22. (2): 273-292.

Bartoš, M., Kušová, D. and Těšitel, J. 2009. Motivation and lifestyle of the Czech amenity migrants. European Countryside 1. (3): 164-179. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10091-009-0014-4

Bayona-i-Carrasco, J. and Gil-Alonso, F. 2013. Is foreign immigration the solution to rural depopulation? The case of Catalonia (1996-2009). Sociologia Ruralis 53. (1): 26-51. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9523.2012.00577.x

Bell, M. and Osti, G. 2010. Mobilities and ruralities: An introduction. Sociologia Ruralis 50. (3): 199-204. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9523.2010.00518.x

Benson, M. and O'Reilly, K. 2009. Migration and the search for a better way of life: A critical exploration of lifestyle migration. The Sociological Review 57. (4): 608-625. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-954X.2009.01864.x

Benson, M. and Osbaldiston, N. 2014. New horizons in lifestyle migration research. In Understanding Lifestyle Migration. Eds.: Benson, M. and Osbaldiston, N., London, Palgrave Macmillan, 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137328670_1

Benson, M. and O'Reilly, K. 2016. From lifestyle migration to lifestyle in migration. Migration Studies4. (1): 20-37. https://doi.org/10.1093/migration/mnv015

Bosworth, G. and Farrell, H. 2011. Tourism entrepreneurs in Northumberland. Annals of Tourism Research38. (4): 1474-1494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2011.03.015

Boyle, P. and Halfacree, K. 1998. Migration into Rural Areas: Theories and Issues. New York, John Wiley & Sons.

Brzozowski, J., Cucculelli, M. and Surdej, A. 2017. The determinants of transnational entrepreneurship and transnational ties' dynamics among immigrant entrepreneurs in ICT sector in Italy. International Migration 55. (3): 105-125. https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12335

Camarero, L. and Sampedro, R. 2019. Despoblación y ruralidad transnacional. Economía Agraria y Recursos Naturales 19. (1): 59-82. https://doi.org/10.7201/earn.2019.01.04

Camarero Rioja, L.A. and Serrano, J.O. 2021. Hidden disparities in rural transition: Cosmopolitanism, socioeconomic decline and accessibilities. AGER: Revista de Estudios sobre Despoblación y Desarrollo Rural 32. 65-92.

Carson, D.A., Cleary, J., de la Barre, S., Eimermann, M. and Marjavaara, R. 2016. New mobilities - new economies? Temporary populations and local innovation capacity in sparsely populated areas. In Settlements at the Edge: Remote Human Settlements in Developed Nations. Eds.: Taylor, A., Carson, D.B., Ensign, P.C., Huskey, L., Rasmussen, R.O. and Saxinger, G., Cheltenham, Edward Elgar Publishing, 178-220. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781784711962.00016

Carson, D.A. and Carson, D.B. 2018. International lifestyle immigrants and their contributions to rural tourism innovation. Journal of Rural Studies64. (November): 230-240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2017.08.004

Carson, D.A., Carson, D.B. and Eimermann, M. 2018. International winter tourism entrepreneurs in northern Sweden. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism 18. (2): 183-198. https://doi.org/10.1080/15022250.2017.1339503

Chiswick, B.R. and Miller, P.W. 2009. The international transferability of immigrants' human capital. Economics of Education Review 28. (2): 162-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2008.07.002

Constant, A. and Zimmermann, K.F. 2006. The making of entrepreneurs in Germany: Are native men and immigrants alike? Small Business Economics26. (3): 279-300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-005-3004-6

Corrado, A., de Castro, C. and Perrotta, D. 2017. Migration and Agriculture. Mobility and Changes in the Mediterranean Area. Oxon, Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315659558

Eimermann, M. and Kordel, S. 2018. International lifestyle migrant entrepreneurs in two new immigration destinations. Journal of Rural Studies 64. (November): 241-252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2018.04.007

Fielding, T. and Ishikawa, Y. 2021. COVID-19 and migration: A research note on the effects of COVID‐19 on internal migration rates and patterns in Japan. Population, Space and Place 27. (6): e2499. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.2499

García Marchante, J.S., Vázquez Varela, C., Aparicio Guerrero, A.E. and Martínez Navarro, J.M. 2007. La empresarialidad rural en el marco del desarrollo territorial. Boletín de la Asociación de Geógrafos Españoles 43. 107-129.

González-Leonardo, M., Rowe, R. and FresoloneCaparrós, A. 2022. Rural revival? The rise in internal migration to rural areas during the COVID-19 pandemic. Who moved and where? Journal of Rural Studies 96. (November): 332-342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2022.11.006

Hoey, B. 2005. From pi to pie: Moral narratives of noneconomic migration and starting over in the postindustrial Midwest. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 34. (5): 586-624. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891241605279016

Hoggart, K. 1997. Rural migration and counterurbanization in the European periphery: The case of Andalucía. Sociologia Ruralis 37. (1): 134-153. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9523.00040

Hoggart, K. and Buller, H. 1995. Retired British home owners in rural France. Ageing and Society 15. (3): 325-353. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X00002580

Hruška, V. and Píša, J. 2019. Winning and losing rural localities of the post-socialist economic restructuring: Case study of Czechia. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 68. (4): 373-389. https://doi.org/10.15201/hungeobull.68.4.4

Huete, R., Mantecón, A. and Estévez, J. 2013. Challenges in lifestyle migration research. Mobilities 8. (3): 331-348. https://doi.org/10.1080/17450101.2013.814236

Ibrahim, Z. and Tremblay, R. 2017. Lifestyle migration and the quest for a life-long vacation. Téoros: Révue de Recherche en Tourisme 36. (2): https://doi.org/10.7202/1042467ar

Iversen, I. and Jacobsen, J.K.S. 2017. Migrant tourism entrepreneurship in rural Norway. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism 16. (4): 484-499. https://doi.org/10.1080/15022250.2015.1113887

Jentsch, B. and Simard, M. 2009. International Migration and Rural Areas. Cross-national Comparative Perspectives. Farnham, Ashgate Publishing Ltd.

Kanas, A., van Tubergen, F. and van der Lippe, T. 2011. The role of social contacts in the employment status of immigrants: A panel study of immigrants in Germany. International Sociology 26. (1): 95-122. https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580910380977

Kim, Y.D. 2006. Stepping-stone to intergenerational mobility? The springboard, safety net, or mobility trap functions of Korean immigrant entrepreneurship for the second generation. International Migration Review 40. (4): 927-962. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2006.00049.x

King, R., Warnes, T. and Williams, A. 2000. Sunset Lives: British Retirement Migration to the Mediterranean. Oxford, Berg.

King, R., Cela, E., Morettini, G. and Fokkema, T. 2019. The Marche: Italy's new frontier for international retirement migration. Population, Space and Place 25. (5): e2241. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.2241

Kordel, S. and Pohle, P. 2018. International lifestyle migration in the Andes of Ecuador: How migrants from the USA perform privilege, import rurality and evaluate their impact on local community. Sociologia Ruralis 58. (1): 126-156. https://doi.org/10.1111/soru.12133

Ley, D. 2006. Explaining variations in business performance among immigrant entrepreneurs in Canada. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 32. (5): 743-764. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691830600704123

Li, P.S. 2001. Immigrants' propensity to self-employment: Evidence from Canada. International Migration Review 35. (4): 1106-1128. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2001.tb00054.x

Marsden, T.K., Murdoch, J., Lowe, P. and Ward, N. 2003. The Differentiated Countryside. Oxon, Routledge.

Mattsson, K.T. and Cassel, S.H. 2019. Immigrant entrepreneurs and potentials for path creating tourism development in rural Sweden. Tourism Planning & Development 17. (4): 384-403. https://doi.org/10.1080/21568316.2019.1607543

McAreavey, R. 2017. New Immigration Destinations: Migrating to Rural and Peripheral Areas. New York, Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780415540056

McAreavey, R. and Argent, N. 2018. Migrant integration in rural new immigration destinations. Journal of Rural Studies 64. (November): 267-275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2018.08.001

Mendoza, C., Morén-Alegret, R. and McAreavey, R. 2020. (Lifestyle) immigrant entrepreneurs in Spanish small villages: Rethinking international immigration in rural Alt Empordà, Catalonia. Belgeo 1. 1-19. https://doi.org/10.4000/belgeo.44107

Morén-Alegret, R. and Wladyka, D. 2019. International Immigration, Integration and Sustainability in Small Towns and Villages. Socio-Territorial Challenges in Rural and Semi-Rural Europe. London, Springer. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-58621-6

Müller, D.K. and Jansson, B. 2007. The difficult business of making pleasure peripheries prosperous. In Tourism in Peripheries: Perspectives from the Far North and South. Eds.: Müller, D.K. and Jansson, B., Wallingford, CAB, 3-18. https://doi.org/10.1079/9781845931773.0003

Munkejord, M.C. 2017. Becoming spatially embedded: Findings from a study on rural immigrant entrepreneurship in Norway. Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review 5. (1): 111-130. https://doi.org/10.15678/EBER.2017.050107

Papadopoulos, A.G., Fratsea, L.M. and Mavrommatis, G. 2018. Governing migrant labour in an intensive agricultural area in Greece. Journal of Rural Studies 64. (November): 200-209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2018.03.013

Pedreño, A., Gadea, E. and de Castro, C. 2014. Labour, gender and political conflicts in the global agri-food system: The case of agri-export model in Murcia, Spain. In Labour Relations in Global Food.Eds.: Bonanno, A. and Cavalcanti, J.S., Bingley, Emerald Publishing, 193-214. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1057-192220140000020008

Potter, C. and Burney, J. 2002. Agricultural multi-functionality in the WTO. Journal of Rural Studies 18. (January): 35-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0743-0167(01)00031-6

Rath, J. and Kloosterman, R. 2000. Outsider's business: A critical review on immigrant entrepreneurship. Geopolitics 34. (3): 657-681. https://doi.org/10.1177/019791830003400301

Romagosa, F., Mendoza, C., Mojica, L. and MorénAlegret, R. 2020. Inmigración internacional y turismo en espacios rurales: El caso de los "micropueblos" en Cataluña. Cuadernos de Turismo 46. 319-347. https://doi.org/10.6018/turismo.451861

Rye, J.F. and Scott, S. 2018. International labour migration and food production in rural Europe: A review of the evidence. Sociologia Ruralis 58. (4). 928-952. https://doi.org/10.1111/soru.12208

Sommer, E. and Gamper, M. 2018. Transnational entrepreneurial activities: A qualitative network study of self-employed migrants from the former Soviet Union in Germany. Social Networks 53. 136-147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2017.04.007

Stam, E. 2010. Entrepreneurship, evolution and geography. In The Handbook of Evolutionary Geography. Eds.: Boschma, R. and Martin, R., Cheltenham, Edward Elgar Publishing, 139-161. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781849806497.00014

Stathopoulou, S., Psaltopupoulos, D. and Skuras, D. 2004. Rural entrepreneurship in Europe: A research framework and agenda. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research 10. (6): 404-425. https://doi.org/10.1108/13552550410564725

Stawarz, N., Rosenbaum-Feldbrügge, M., Sander, N., Sulak, H. and Knobloch, V. 2022. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on internal migration in Germany: A descriptive analysis. Population, Space and Place 28. (4): e2566. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.2566

Stone, I. and Stubbs, C. 2007. Enterprising expatriates: Lifestyle migration and entrepreneurship in rural Southern Europe. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development 19. (5): 433-450. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985620701552389

Valdez, Z. 2008. The effect of social capital on white, Korean, Mexican and black business owners' earnings in the US. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 34. (6): 955-973. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691830802211265

Woods, M. 2016. International migration, agency and regional development in rural Europe. Documents d'Anàlisi Geogràfica 62. 569-593. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/dag.372

Yeasmin, N. 2016. The determinants of sustainable entrepreneurship of immigrants in Lapland. Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review 4. (1): 129-159.

https://doi.org/10.15678/EBER.2016.040109

Published
2023-06-30
How to Cite
MendozaC. (2023). International immigration and entrepreneurship in rural areas of the Spanish Pyrenees. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin, 72(2), 119-131. https://doi.org/10.15201/hungeobull.72.2.2
Section
Articles